CX Overview

• CX Introduction
• Project’s Repository
• Syntax
• Affordances
  • Arity Restrictions
  • Type Restrictions
  • Existential Restrictions
  • Identifier Restrictions
  • Boundaries Restrictions
  • User-defined Restrictions
• Strict Typing System
• Compiled and Interpreted
  • Read-Eval-Print Loop
  • Meta-programming Commands
  • Stepping
  • Interactive Debugging
• Integrated Evolutionary Algorithm
• Serialization

CX Introduction

CX is both a specification and a programming language designed to embrace a new programming paradigm based on the concept of affordances. Affordances allow a program to know what actions can and cannnot be done by it. For example, we can ask the program what arguments can be sent to a function, and the program will return a list of possible actions. After having decided what action from the list is appropriate, we can choose one of the options and the program will apply the chosen action. As a consequence of CX’s affordance system, a genetic programming algorithm is built and provided as a native function, which can be used to optimize the program’s structure during runtime.

The CX specification states that both a compiler and an interpreter must be accessible to the programmer. The interpreter can be accessed through a read-eval-print loop, where the programmer can interactively add and remove elements to a program. Once the program has been finished, it can be compiled in order to increase its performance.

The typing system in CX is very strict. The only “implicit casting” occurs when the parser determines what is an integer, a float, a boolean, a string, or an array. If a function requires a 64 bit integer, for example, one has to use a cast function to explicitly convert it to the required type.

Lastly, a CX program can be completely serialized to byte arrays, maintaining its execution state and structure. This serialized version of a program can be deserialized later on, and continue its execution in any device that has a CX interpreter/compiler.

In the following sections, the CX features discussed in the above paragraphs are described in more detail.

Project’s Repository

The source code of the project can be downloaded from its Github repository: https://github.com/skycoin/cx. The repository includes the specification file, documentation, examples, and the source code itself.

Syntax

As was mentioned in the introduction, CX is both a specification and a programming language. The CX specification does not impose a syntax, but rather the structures and processes that a CX dialect must implement in order to be considered a CX. As a consequence, one could implement a two CX dialects, one with a Lisp-like syntax, and another one with a C-like syntax. This underlaying language is called CX Base, or “the base language.” In this document, an implementation is used to showcase the capabilities of the specification, although its purpose is not only to serve as an academic tool, but to become a complete and robust language that can be used for general purposes.

The CX used in this document has the goal to have a syntax as similar as possible to Go’s syntax.

Affordances

A programmer needs to make a plethora of decisions while constructing a program, e.g., how many parameters a function must receive, how many parameters it must return, what statements are needed to obtain the desired functionality, and what arguments need to be sent as parameters to the statement functions, among others. The affordance system in CX can be queried to obtain a list of the possible actions that can be applied to an element. In this context, examples of elements are functions, structs, modules, and expressions.

Without having a set of rules and facts that dictate what must be the logic and purpose behind a program, one can determine some basic restrictions that, at least, guarantee that a program will be semantically correct. The affordance system provides such restrictions as the first filtering layer, and are explained below.

Arity Restrictions

Expressions in CX can return multiple values. This creates a challenge for the affordance system, as the number of variables that receive the output arguments of an expression need to match the number of outputs defined by the expression’s operator.

out1, out2, ..., outN := op(inp1, inp2, ..., inpM)

If the example above is correct, then op needs to output N arguments. This problem can become even more challenging if we consider that op’s definition can be changed by the affordance system itself or by the user in the future: as soon as op’s definition changes, new affordances can be applied to any expression which uses op as its operator, because the number of variables that receive op’s output arguments are now in mismatch.

The previous logic also implies that if the number of receiving variables matches the number of output parameters of the expression’s operator, the action of adding new receiving variables can no longer be performed.

Arity restrictions also apply to input arguments in expressions, i.e., if a function call has already all of its input arguments defined, then the affordance system should not enlist adding another argument as a possible action. Likewise, if an expression is trying to call an operator with fewer arguments than the required, the affordance system, when queried, should tell the programmer that adding a new argument to the function call is possible.

Example:

Note: string concatenation has not been implemented yet. Also, the print functions always append a newline at the end of the string being printed. A future version of the CX implementation presented in this document will address these issues.

var age i32 = 18
var steps i32 = 23

func advance (direction str, numberSteps i32) () {
    printStr("Advancing:")
    printStr(direction)
    printStr("Number of steps:")
    printI32(numberSteps)
}

func main () () {
    advance("North")
}

In the example above, the call to advance in the main function lacks one argument. If one queries the affordance system, the system should enlist, among other things, an action similar to:

...
(k)       AddArgument advance age
(k+1)     AddArgument advance steps
...

where k represents an arbitrary index. As one can see, the affordance system is telling the programmer that two of the possible actions that can be done are to add another argument to the advance function, and the global definitions age and steps are among the options to act as arguments.

It is noteworthy to mention that affordances should always be enumerated, and their order should be constant over several calls to the affordance system. The reason behind this is that the programmer should be able to indicate the system what affordance is to be applied after examining the query’s result.

Type Restrictions

The common behaviour in programming languages is to have a typing system which restricts the programmer from sending arguments of unexpected types to function calls. Even in weakly typed programming languages, an operation such as true / "hello world" should raise an error (unless in the case of an esoteric language, of course). CX follows a very strict typing system, and arguments that are not exactly of the expected type should not be considered as candidates for affordances’ actions (although a workaround is to wrap these arguments in cast functions before being shown as affordances).

Type restrictions must also be considered when assigning a new value to an already existant variable. In CX, a variable declared of a certain type must remain of that type during all of its lifetime (unless it is removed using meta-programming commands/functions and created anew). Thus, a variable declared to hold a 32 bit integer should not be considered as a candidate to receive a 64 bit float output argument, for example.

Existential Restrictions

This type of restriction can seem trivial at first sight: if an element does not exist, an affordance that involves it should not exist either. Nevertheless, this restriction becomes a challenge once we consider a situation where a function was renamed, and it has already been used as an operator in expressions throughout a program. If the program is in its source code form, this problem is reduced to a simple “search & replace” process, but if it’s during runtime, the affordance system becomes very useful: an affordance to change the identifier bound to this operator.

Even if an element has not be renamed, determining if an element exists or not is not trivial. The elements to be used in affordances must be searched in the call stack’s current scope, in the global scope, and in other modules’ global scopes.

Identifier Restrictions

Adding new named elements are commonly candidate actions for affordances. A restriction that arises when trying to apply such type of affordance is to ensure a unique identifier for the new element to avoid redefinitions. The affordance system can either generate a unique identifier in the element’s scope, or can ask the programmer to provide a suitable identifier.

Boundaries Restrictions

CX provides native functions for accessing and modifying elements from arrays. Examples of an array reader and an array writer are:

readI32([]i32{0, 10, 20, 30}, 3)
writeF32([]f32{0.0, 10.10, 20.20}, 1, 5.5)

In the first expression, an array of four 32 bit integers is accessed at index 3, which returns the last element of the array. In the second expression, the second element of an array of three 32 bit floats is changed to 5.5. If any of these arrays was accessed using either a negative index or an index which exceeds the length of the array, an “out of boundaries” error is raised.

By obeying only the type restrictions, the affordance system will tell the programmer that any 32 bit integer argument can be used as an index to access any array. Although these programs would compile, out of boundaries errors are very probable to occur if the programmer does not pay extra attention to what is being chosen to be applied.

The affordance system needs to filter the affordances according to the following criteria: discard any negative 32 bit integer, and discard any 32 bit integer which exceeds the length of the array being sent to the array reader or writer.

User-defined Restrictions

Note: The user-defined restrictions system is still in its experimental stages.

The basic restrictions described above should at least guarantee that the program does not encounter any runtime errors. These restrictions should be enough to build some interesting systems, such as CX’s native evolutionary algorithm. Nevertheless, in some situations a more robust system is required. For this purpose, clauses, queries and objects are used to describe a module’s environment. These elements are defined by using an integrated Prolog interpreter, and the CX native functions setClauses, setQuery, and addObject.

The most general description of this restriction system is that the programmer defines a series of Prolog clauses (facts and rules), that will be queried using the defined Prolog query, for each of the objects added. This will hardly make any sense to anyone reading this for the first time. An example should clarify the concepts and the process a bit more:

setClauses("move(robot, north, X, R) :- X = northWall, R = false.")

setQuery("move(robot, %s, %s, R).")

In this example, only one rule is defined. The rule can roughly be interpreted as “if the robot wants to move north, ask what is X. If X is northWall, then it can’t move.” The query is just a format string that will serve as a query for the move action, and for the robot element that will receive two more arguments: a direction, and an object.

Objects can be defined by using the addObject function:

addObject("southWall")
addObject("northWall")

The restriction system will query the system for each of the objects present in the module. In this example, the system will first perform the query “move(robot, north, southWall),” and the system will respond “nil,” which means that it does not have any rule defined to handle such situation, and the default action is to not discard the affordance. The second query will be “move(robot, north, northWall),” and the system will respond “false.” In this case, the affordance did not pass the test, and is discarded.

The example above illustrates how these rules can negate an affordance using a condition. But rules can also be used to accept affordances, even after being negated by previous rules.

setClauses("move(robot, north, X, R) :- X = northWall, R = false.
    move(robot, north, X, R) :- X = northWormhole, R = true.")

setQuery("move(robot, %s, %s, R).")

The added rule in the code above tells the system to accept the robot movement towards north if a wormhole is present. If the object array is left as it was defined before, the movement affordance will still be discarded, but if addObject("northWormhole") is evaluated, the “northWormhole” will be added and the robot will be able to pass through the wall using the wormhole.

Strict Typing System

As mentioned in the introduction, there is no implicit casting in CX. Because of this, multiple versions for each of the primitive types are defined in the core module. For example, four native functions for addition exist: addI32, addI64, addF32, and addF64.

The parser attaches a default type to data it finds in the source code: if an integer is read, its default type is i32 or 32 bit integer; and if a float is read, its default type is f32 or 32 bit float. There is no ambiguity with other data read by the parser: true and false are always booleans; a series of characters enclosed between double quotes are always strings; and array needs to indicate its type before the list of its elements, e.g., []i64{1, 2, 3}.

For the cases where the programmer needs to explicitly cast a value of one type to another, the core module provides a number of cast functions to work with primitive types. For example, byteAToStr casts a byte array to a string, and i32ToF32 casts a 32 bit integer to a 32 bit float.

Compiled and Interpreted

The CX specification enforces a CX dialect to provide the developer with both an interpreter and a compiler. An interpreted program is far slower than its compiled counterpart, as is expected, but will allow a more flexible program. This flexibility comes from meta-programming functions, and affordances, which can modify a program’s structure during runtime.

A compiled program needs a more rigid structure than an interpreted program, as many of the optimizations leverage this rigidity. As a consequence, the affordance system and any function that operates over the program’s structure will be limited in functionality in a compiled program.

The compiler should be used when performance is the biggest concern, while a program should remain being interpreted when the programmer requires all the flexibility provided by the CX features. In the following subsections, some of these features are presented, without the aim of serving as a tutorial, but rather as a mere introduction.

Read-Eval-Print Loop

The read-eval-print loop (REPL) is an interactive tool where a programmer can input new program elements and evaluate them. Starting a new REPL session will print the following messages to the console:

CX REPL
More information about CX is available at https://github.com/skycoin/cx

*

The “*” tells the programmer that the REPL is ready to receive a new line of code. The REPL will keep reading input from the user until a semicolon and a new line character are encountered.

If no program was initially loaded into the REPL, CX will start with an empty program. This can be seen if the :dProgram true; meta-programming command is given as input:

* :dProgram true;
Program

*

The REPL is only printing the word “Program” followed by an empty line. As a first step, a new module and function can be declared:

As the first steps, a new main module and a new main function should be declared:

* package main;
Program
0.- Module: main

* func main () () {};
Program
0.- Module: main
	Functions
		0.- Function: main () ()

*

As can be seen, the program structure is being printed every time a new element is added to the program.

Meta-programming Commands

:dProgram was used in the subsection above. Any statement that starts with a colon (:) is part of a category of instructions known as “meta-programming commands.”

Declaring elements in the REPL instructs CX to add them to the program’s structure. But, as in many other programming languages, these declarations are limited to only be added, and at most be redefined.

But, as in many other programming languages that provide a REPL, the programmer is limited to adding new elements to a program and, at most, redefining elements. Meta-programming commands allow the programmer to be in more control on how the program’s structure is being modified.

:dProgram, :dState, and :dStack are used for debugging purposes only, by printing the program’s structure, the current call’s state, and the full call stack to the user, respectively. :step instructs the interpreter to go forward or backward in its execution. :package, :func, and :struct, known as selectors, are used to change the program’s scope. :rem gives the programmer access to removers, which can be used to selectively remove elements from a program’s structure. :aff is used to access CX’s affordance system; this meta-programming command is used to both query and apply affordances for the different elements of a program. Lastly, :clauses is used to set a module’s clauses to be used by the user-defined restrictions system; :object and :objects are used for adding and printing objects, respectively; and the last two meta-programming commands: :query, which is used for setting the module’s query, and :dQuery which is a helper for debugging the user-defined restrictions.

Stepping

A program started in REPL mode can be initialized with a program structure defined in a source file. For example: current directory

$ ./cx --load examples/looping.cx

loads looping.cx from the examples directory (the full list of examples can be found in the project’s repository). Even though a program has been loaded, it has not yet been executed. In the REPL, in order to execute a program one has to use the meta-programming command :step. To run a program until the end, :step 0; must be used. But :step is interesting because it can take other integers as its argument (even negative integers). For example:

CX REPL
More information about CX is available at https://github.com/skycoin/cx

* :dStack false;

* :step 5;
0

* :step 5;
1

* :step 5;
2

*

The examples/looping.cx program is being run 5 steps at a time. We can see that 5 steps are required in order for the program to re-evaluate the while condition, print the counter, and add 1 to the counter.

Likewise, we should “go back in time” if the REPL is instructed to :step -5.

...

* :step 5;
2

* :step -5;

* :step 5;
2

*

After instructing CX to advance 5 steps again, the 2 is printed again to the console. It must be noted that the counter is not just being assigned with a different value. What is happening is that the call stack is being reverted to a previous state.

Interactive Debugging

A CX program will enter the REPL mode once an error has been found. This behaviour gives the programmer the opportunity to debug the program before attempting to resume its execution.

In the example below, a division by 0 error is raised, the REPL alerts the programmer about the error, the last call in the call stack is dumped, and the REPL continues its execution.

CX REPL
More information about CX is available at https://github.com/skycoin/cx

* package main;

* func main () () {};

* :func main;
main
:func main {...
	* foo := divI32(5, 3);
main
:func main {...
	* bar := divI32(10, 0);
main
:func main {...
	* :step 0;
fn:main ln:0, 	locals:
>> 1
fn:main ln:1, 	locals: foo: 1

Call's State:
foo:		1

divI32() Arguments:
0: 10
1: 0

0: divI32: Division by 0
main
:func main {...
	*

Likewise, if a program is given as input to the CX interpreter, without calling the REPL, but an error is raised, the REPL will be called for the programmer or system administrator to debug the program:

$ ./cx examples/program-halt.cx
1

Call's State:
nonAssign_0:		1
nonAssign_1:		1

divI32() Arguments:
0: 5
1: 0

5: divI32: Division by 0
CX REPL
More information about CX is available at https://github.com/skycoin/cx

*

Integrated Evolutionary Algorithm

The affordance system and meta-programming functions in CX allow the flexibility of changing the program’s structure in a supervised manner. However, affordances can still be automated by having a function that selects the index of the affordance to be applied.

evolve is a native function that constructs user-defined functions by using random affordances. An iterative process is used to test

evolve follows the principles of evolutionary computation. In particular, evolve performs a technique called genetic programming. Genetic programming tries to find a combination of operators and arguments that will solve a problem. For example, you could instruct evolve to find a combination of operators that, when sent 10 as an argument, returns 20. This might sound trivial, but genetic programming and other evolutionary algorithms can solve very complicated problems.

In the examples directory from the repository, one can find an example (examples/evolving-a-function.cx) that describes the process for evolving a curve-fitting function.

Serialization

A program in CX can be partially or fully serialized to a byte array. This serialization capability allows a program to create a program image (similar to system images), where the exact state at which the program was serialized is maintained. This means that a serialized program can be deserialized, and resume its execution later on. Serialiation can also be used to create backups.

A CX program can leverage its integrated features to create some interesting scenarios. For example, a program can be serialized to create a backup of itself, and start an evolutionary algorithm on one of its functions. If the evolutionary algorithm finds a function that performs better than the previous definition, one can keep this new version of the program. However, if the evolutionary algorithm performed badly, the program can be restored to the saved backup. All of these tasks can be automated.